The Study

A study was conducted (and repeated several times) in April 2005 thru June 2005 to determine what effect magnetized water has vs. non magnetized water on the germination rate and growth pattern of mung beans. Prior research indicated that magnetic fields have a positive effect in the improvement in both rate of growth and in the vitality of the plants. This benefit has been attributed to the water becoming more “Bio-available” due to the de-clustering effect magnet fields have on water. But which magnetic orientations have the most positive effects? And does this declustering have such a positive effect that it can even overcome the adverse effects of chemicals in the water? Those questions were the subject of this study.

The Experiment

For the experiment various orientations of magnetic fields were configured in the new patent pending AQUATOMIC® magnet water treatment device.

Various orientations of magnetic fields were used to treat both filtered and non filtered tap water to determine what effect the magnet orientation itself had in germination and growth patterns. The magnet orientations were duplicated on both sets of water bottles containing filtered and also non filtered city tap water. Non-magnetically treated filtered and unfiltered city tap water bottles were also used as a control. A duplicate container of mung beans was used to validate that the results were consistent and valid.

The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions where variables pertaining to germination rate e.g. light, temperature, humidity, soil condition, etc were constant. Ten mung beans were placed in multiple containers, with the same orientation, at the same depth, and witht the identical soil in each containers. Two cups were then selected randomly for each water sample.

The results were remarkable! (And duplicated on three successive replications of the experiment.)

The study was conducted to observe and compare the difference in the germination and growth patterns of the mung beans when subjected to four basic types of water samples:

• City tap water which measured a 1.0 ppm of chlorine residual throughout the experiment.
• Filtered city tap water
• Magnetized filtered city tap water subjected to 6 various magnet orientations.
  • Note: to magnetize the water, we used AQUATOMIC water treatment devices with the magnets arranged in varying North/South configurations.

• Magnetized unfiltered city tap water also subjected to 6 various magnet orientations.

The results were interesting in that the containers of mung beans responded differently with the following results:

1. The non-magnetized city tap water fed containers averaged a 15% germination success rate and demonstrated a poor growth pattern and averaged a height of 9.355cm.
   
   
   
2. The non-magnetized filtered water fed containers averaged an 85% germination success rate and demonstrated a healthy growth pattern and averaged a height of 14.00cm, but took substantially longer to reach that height.
   
   
   
3. The magnetized water fed containers (both filtered and non) averaged a 100% germination success rate and also demonstrated a faster growth rate as compared to both the filtered and non-filtered non-magnetized water. However, even though germination and height were similar, the growth pattern and plant stability was clearly MUCH healthier in all orientations of the magnetic water than that of the City tap water. There were also observable differences in the growth patterns among the different magnetic oriented waters.
   
   
   
   1. The seeds that were fed the SOUTH pole only treated water germinated faster and grew at a faster rate. It was noticed, however, that the stalks did not grow strong enough to support the upper plant structure and fell over. They averaged a height of 14.425cm.
      
      
      
   2. The seeds that were fed the North pole only water germinated slowest but were able to stand more erect and averaged a height of 14.75cm
      
      
      
   3. The seeds that were fed the NNSS pole water germinated at a rate in between "1" and "2" just above and were also as tall and stood erect and averaged a height of 14.225 cm.
      
      
      
   4. The seeds that were fed the NSNS pole water germinated at a rate in between "1" and "2", were also as tall, stood erect, and averaged a height of 13.90cm.
      
      
      
   5. The seeds that were fed the water from a bottle that had both SSSS and NNNN pole AQUATOMIC germinated at a rate in between the "1" and "2", were also as tall, stood erect, and averaged a height of 14.325 cm.
      
      
      
   6. The seeds that were fed with water mixed 50-50 with "1" and "2" water above germinated at a rate in between those two waters, were also as tall, stood erect, and averaged a height of 12.95cm.
      
      
      
4. The magnetized city tap (unfiltered) water fed containers averaged a 100% germination success rate which also demonstrated a faster growth rate as compared to non magnetized water (both the filtered and non filtered). Remarkably, the germination rates and growth patterns were identical to the magnetized filtered water containers:
   
   
   
   1. The seeds that were fed the south pole only treated water germinated faster and grew at a faster rate and averaged a height of 13.85cm. It was noticed, however, that the stalks did not grow strong enough to support the upper plant structure, and many of the plants “fell over.”
      
      
      
   2. The seeds that were fed the North pole only water germinated slowest (among the magnetized waters), but were able to stand fully erect. They averaged a height of 11.16cm.
      
      
      
   3. The seeds that were fed the NNSS pole water germinated at a rate in between examples "1" and "2" just above and stood erect and averaged a height of 13.015 cm.
      
      
      
   4. The seeds that were fed the NSNS pole water germinated at a rate in between "1" and "2", stood erect, and averaged a height of 10.675 cm.
      
      
      
   5. The seeds that were fed the water from a bottle that had both a SSSS and NNNN pole AQUATOMIC device on it germinated at a rate in between "1" and "2", stood erect, and averaged a height of 10.25cm.
      
      
      
   6. The seeds that were fed with water mixed 50-50 with "1" and "2" water above germinated at a rate in between those two waters, stood erect, and averaged a height of 11.025cm.

Conclusions

Some of the results were easily anticipated such as filtered water producing better results than unfiltered, chlorinated, city-tap water. However, a notable surprise was the fact that the seeds fed with non-filtered magnetic water responded almost identically to those seeds fed with thefiltered magnetic treated water (both had a 100% germination rate).

On the other hand, the non-filtered, non-magnetic water fed seeds responded very poorly(15% germination rate), whereas the filtered, non-magnetic fed seeds had an 85% germination rate.

To summarize the key point here: the difference in germination rates between magnetized and non-magnetized unfiltered city tap water was 100% vs. 15%!

In addition, there were further results that proved interesting. In every case, as we mentioned, the magnet treated water, whether filtered or non, had a high germination rate. However, theconfiguration of the magnets had a noticeable and measurable effect on the overall health and sturdiness of the plant.

• It was observed that the SSSS configured AQUATOMIC promoted the fastest growth and averaged (across all repetitions of the study)14.13 cm, but the stalks were not strong enough to support the leaves.
  
  
  
• On the other hand, the NNNN configured AQUATOMIC promoted slower growth and averaged 11.95 cm, but had strong stalks capable of supporting the leaves.
  
  
  
• It was then observed that when water from a bottle with both a NNNN configured AQUATOMIC and SSSS configured AQUATOMIC were mixed, it promoted an average growth rate and the plants reached an average 12.28 cm in height across all repetitions of the study. And the stalks were strong enough to support the leaves.
  
  
  
• It was also observed that the NSNS configured AQUATOMIC promoted an average growth rate and reached an average height of 12.28 cm, with stalks that were strong enough to support the leaves.
  
  
  
• And finally, it was observed that the NNSS configured AQUATOMIC promoted an average growth rate and reached an average height of 13.62 cm, with strong stalks capable of supporting the leaves.
  
  
  

The three pots on the left were fed magnetized filtered water with varying magnetic configurations. The two pots on the right were fed non-magnetized water.

Bottom line

The plants with the healthiest observed germination rate, growth rate, largest size, and best overall appearance were those watered with the NNSS configured AQUATOMIC.

AQUATOMIC®

The new patent pending AQUATOMIC water treatment device has been designed to fit in many various aqueous delivery systems and utilizes a group of ultra strong, coated Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB) magnets that deliver over 17,000 gauss directly into the water to be treated. The AQUATOMIC's Super-Strength Rare Earth NdFeB magnets have the characteristics of extreme strong Br resident induction and excellent demagnetization resistance capability.

This new design incorporates an adjustable elastic strap that can be utilized and easily adapted onto existing water filter housings, water bottles, sun tea jars, water pitchers, canteens, water lines, shower nozzles, and garden hoses…to name just a few possibilities.

Source: http://www.jonbarron.org/article/magnets-and-bioavailability-water

ISHS Acta Horticulturae 689: VII International Symposium on Grapevine Physiology and Biotechnology

M. Lafontaine, H.R. Schultz, C. Lopes, B. Bálo, G. VaradiAbstract: 

The effects of UV-radiation on grapevine leaf and fruit physiology under field conditions were investigated. Selected portions of the light spectrum (within the UV wavelengths) were attenuated with polyester and di- and tri-acetate films.

The entire canopy or parts thereof were covered with these films during berry development. Berry skin pigment composition was determined using a non-destructive spectrophotometric technique.

There was a strong UV-induced shift towards the formation of red and brown pigment components without affecting sugar levels. Chlorophyll degradation in the leaves and berry skins occurred more rapidly in the high UV-radiation treatments.

Exposure to UV-B radiation increased both the concentration of total bound glycosidic secondary metabolites and phenolics. There were some noticeable effects on the aromatic expression in the resulting wines.

Source: http://www.actahort.org/books/689/689_11.htm

A team led by Bernhard Kräutler at the University of Innsbruck has now determined that the breakdown of chlorophyll in ripening apples and pears produces the same decomposition products as those in brightly colored leaves. As the researchers report in the journal Angewandte Chemie, these colorless decomposition products, called nonfluorescing chlorophyll catabolytes (NCC), are highly active antioxidants—making them potentially very healthy.

The beautifully colored leaves of fall are a sign of leaf senescence, the programmed cell death in plants. This process causes the disappearance of chlorophyll, which is what gives leaves their green color. For a long time, no one really knew just what happens to the chlorophyll in this process. In recent years, Kräutler and his team, working with the Zurich botanists Philippe Matile and Stefan Hörtensteiner, have been able to identify the first decomposition products: colorless, polar NCCs that contain four pyrrole rings—like chlorophyll and heme.

Now the Innsbruck researchers have examined the peels of apples and pears. Unripe fruits are green because of their chlorphyll. In ripe fruits, NCCs have replaced the chlorophyll, especially in the peel and the flesh immediately below it. These catabolytes are the same for apples and pears, and are also the same as those found in the leaves of the fruit trees. “There is clearly one biochemical pathway for chlorophyll decomposition in leaf senescence and fruit ripening,” concludes Kräutler.

When chlorophyll is released from its protein complexes in the decomposition process, it has a phototoxic effect: When irradiated with light, it absorbs energy and can transfer it to other substances. For example, it can transform oxygen into O3 ozone. As the researchers were able to demonstrate, the NCCs have an opposite effect: They are powerful antioxidants and can thus play an important physiological role for the plant.

It then became apparent that NCCs are components of the diets of humans and other higher animals, and that they could thus also play a role in their systems. Other previously identified important antioxidants in the peels of fruits include the flavonoids. Thus, the saying, “an apple a day keeps the doctor away” seems to be true, according to Kräutler.

Article: Colorless Tetrapyrrolic Chlorophyll Catabolites in Ripening Fruit Are Effective Antioxidants, Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2007, 46, 8699–8702, doi: 10.1002/anie.200703587

Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071106095637.htm

Dr. Thomas Müller, Dr. Markus Ulrich, Prof. Dr. Karl-Hans Ongania, and Prof. Dr. Bernhard Kräutler

Degreening and the simultaneous appearance of appealing colors are also signs of fruit ripening.[1] However, the mechanism of chlorophyll breakdown and the structure of the catabolites in ripening fruit still remain to be clarified.

Here we show that chlorophyll breakdown in ripening apples and pears also leads to NCCs. These were found to be identical to those from senescent leaves. In addition, the NCCs observed in both the peels and flesh of fruit were found to be remarkable antioxidants. The disease-preventing effects of apples and pears are mostly associated with flavonoids and their antioxidative activity,[27-31] and the fruit peels appear to be specifically rich sources.[27,32, 33] T

he discovery of the NCCs as components of ripe fruit is thus of particular interest. Remarkably, chlorophyll is now seen as being phototoxic (and it is assumed not to be absorbed by the intestinal tract), and an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) drug transporter specifically removes photoactive Pheo a in mammals.[34]

In contrast, NCCs, the overlooked colorless tetrapyrroles and natural antioxidants in fruit, may possess beneficial physiological properties. The occurrence of NCCs in ripe fruit might thus give a new turn[32] to the meaning of the popular saying: “An apple a day keeps the doctor away.”[35]

Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2912502/

Beekeepers are finding as many as 70% fewer honey bees in their hives because of a die off!! These bees, of course, pollinate the crops that we depend on for our existence! We use the water as a foliar spray on our farm in Westbrookville and we have an increased bee population. Bacteria are getting stronger and our method allows honeybees to survive. Again, you can help! Look at the bacteria destruction chart that is also crucial to our food supply.

Source: http://www.johnellis.com/howItWorks.php

Volume 6, Issue 4 - April 2011 - Pages 477 - 482 - http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/psb.6.4.14744

Authors: Ken Yokawa, Tomoko Kagenishi and Tomonori Kawano

Abstract:

Ozone-inducible (OI) peptides found in plants contain repeated sequences consisting of a hexa-repeat unit (YGH GGG) repeated 7–9 times in tandem, and each unit tightly binds copper. To date, the biochemical roles for OI peptides are not fully understood.

Here, we demonstrated that the hexa-repeat unit from OI peptides behaves as metal-binding motif catalytically active in the O2•--generation. Lastly, possible mechanisms of the reaction and biological consequence of the reactions are discussed by analogy to the action of human prion octarepeat peptides.

Source: http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/psb/article/14744/

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Paper Title: Review Of The Applications Of Ozone For Increasing Storage Times Of Perishable Focus

Abstract

Ozone, the second most powerful oxidant readily available is an excellent sterilizing agent as well as chemical oxidizing agent. Because of this property, it has been studied for preservation foods. Indeed, many European countries currently employ ozone for maintaining holds of refrigerated ships free of bacteria, molds, odors, ets., for preservation of cheeses, eggs, some meats, poultry, some berries and some fruits.

Much of this technology was developed shortly after World War II. Many of the earlier studies reported in the literature came to conflicting conclusions with respect to the efficiancy of ozone in providing improvements in storage lives of perishable foods. 

In light of modern advances in ozone generation and associated equipment, as well as increased understandings of the various technologies associated with the application and handling of ozone, and advances in methods of food transportation (containerization and modularization), it is believed to be timely to re-evaluate the potentials for this versatile, but little understood oxidant / disinfectant, to provide cost-effective benefits in food preservation.

This paper represents a first attempt to review past and current studies, with suggestions for future studies to develop those benefits which appear to be achievable for the food preservation and distribution industries.

Problem

Many studies have been carried out in the past century to evaluate the effectiveness of utilizing ozone in food preservation and transportation of perishable foods. Advances have been made over the years in the development of ozone generation.

Testing / Method

The purpose of this study was to review and evaluate many earlier studies involving ozone. Some of the earlier results were inconsistent due to less structured scientific methods and challenges in measuring ozone levels due to lack monitoring systems. Early food preservation studies included: cold storage of fruits including cranberries, apples, oranges, lemons, peaches, and bananas, storage of potatoes, corn seed and soybeans, cheeses, poultry, and fish.

Conclusion / Results

In reviewing these early studies, it is apparent that ozone contributes to extending the shelf life of ripening fruits and vegetables. Many fruits emit ethylene gas, which accelerates their ripening. Ozone reacts with ethylene, produces intermediate ethylene oxide which fights against mold, yeast and bacterial growth and slows the ripening process.

Ozone was effective in controlling bacteria and mold on fresh meat when applied early in the meats storage. The bacterial growth rate on the surface of poultry is reduced when washed with ozonated water. Fresh fish preservation through the ozanization of sterlized ice for packaging and transportation offers great potential to eliminate fish spoilage. 

Source

OZONE: SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 
Vol. 4, pp. 147-163, 1982 
Pergamon Press Ltd. 
Printed in the USA

Source:

http://www.ozonesolutions.com/Ozone-Research/Review-Of-The-Applications-Of-Ozone-For-Increasing-Storage-Times-Of-Perishable-Focus

Abstract

Soft and hard wheat samples were tempered using ozonated water (1.5 and 11.5 mg ozone/l). Milling (rate of extraction), rheological (farinograph and extensograph characteristics)., chemical (protein, falling number, sedimentation volume), colour (Hunter Lab values and microbiological (total bacterial and yeast/moulds) properties of the parent flours were evaluated.

Results indicated that tempering with ozonated water did not significantly alter the chemical, physical and rheological properties of the flours, A statistically significant reduction in the total bacterial and yeast/mould counts were obtained after tempering with ozonated water (p<0.05). Results suggest that the water ozonated up to 11.5 mg/ ozone/l can be successfully used in the tempering of soft and hard wheat without deterioration in the flour quality.

Problem

Ozone is a powerful antimicrobial intervention commonly used in food processing and storage applications. There is a desire to bring the benefits of ozone to the flour milling industry, this research was performed to evaluate the potential negative or positive effect of ozone on the properties of the wheat, and finished flour product. This research also evaluated the effectiveness of ozone as an antimicrobial intervention on the finished flour product, this was evaluated by testing the total bacteria count, and Mold/yeast count in the finished flour. 

Testing / Method

Two different wheat varieties were used for this testing: Adiyaman Beyaz (a soft white wheat) and Arjantin (a hard red wheat). These varieties were selected to represent a strong and weak wheat commonly used in flour for bread making. Soft wheat was tempered to a moisture content of 15.5%, while hard wheat was tempered to a moisture content of 16.5%. Full analysis of the flour was performed on three separate samples of each type of wheat, these were as follows: 

- Wheat was tempered with water 
- Wheat was tempered with 1.5 mg/l dissolved ozone 
- Wheat was tempered with 11.5 mg/l dissolved ozone 

Microbiological analysis was also performed on untempered wheat ground into flour

Conclusion / Results

Results show that the ozone treatment did not alter the milling efficiency of either the soft or hard wheat. The physical, chemical, rheological, and color of the finished flour was also not affected by either the ozone treatment of either the hard or soft wheat flour samples. 

Total bacteria along with mold and yeast counts were statistically lower in the ozone treated samples of both the hard and soft wheat flour samples. These results can be seen the table below. 

This research does suggest that ozone can be implemented into the tempering process as an effective antimicrobial intervention step without negatively affecting the finished flour product.

Source

Influence of tempering with ozonated water on the selected properties of wheat flour 
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Gaiziantep, 27310 Gaintep, Turkey 
Accepted 14 October, 2000 
Author: Senol Ibanoglu

Source: http://www.ozonesolutions.com/Ozone-Research/Wheat-Flour-Tempered-With-Ozone

Agriculture - Fruits

Ozone application on freshly cut pineapple and banana shows increase in flavonoids and total phenol contents when exposure is up to 20 minutes. Decrease in ascorbic acid content is observed but the positive effect on total phenol content and flavonoids can overcome the negative effect.[74]Tomatoes upon treatment with ozone shows an increase in β-carotene, lutein and lycopene.[75] However, ozone application on strawberries in pre-harvest period shows decrease in ascorbic acid content.[76]

Ozone facilitates the extraction of some heavy metals from soil using EDTA. EDTA forms strong, water-soluble coordination compounds with some heavy metals (Pb, Zn) thereby making it possible to dissolve them out from contaminated soil. If contaminated soil is pre-treated with ozone, the extraction efficacy of Pb, Am and Pu increases by 11–28.9%,[77] 43.5%[78] and 50.7%[78] respectively.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone

Paper Title: Effect of Oxidative Treatment on Corn Seed Germination Kinetics

Abstract

Corn seed were treated with pure oxygen and oxygen charge with ozone during 6.8 or 20.5 min. Germination tests were started immediately or 48h after treatment. Effects of oxidative treatments on germination were determinate by measuring seedlings and roots (>3mm and >20mm) rate at 3,4 and 5 days after imbibition.

Results obtained for treated seeds samples were higher than untreated one. A faster start of germination for treated samples than untreated was observed. This early germination start led to have more germinated seeds with large root in treated samples than untreated at 4 and 5 days. Never the less a too long ozone treatment seemed to be penalizing on germination rate whereas a short one seemed to be most beneficial.

Problem

Various studies have been done documenting the exogeneous oxidative treatment of seeds to break seed dormancy. In addition the positive effects of ozone treatment on germination have also been documented. However the effect of oxygen charged with ozone and their effects on germination have not been studied, specifically in the area of germination conditions and kinetics. Additionally, any improvement in seed germination rate could have profound impact on worldwide food supplies.

Testing / Method

250 g of seeds were humidified. In a plastic flask, 26.75 g of distillate water was added for corn in order to reach 20% moisture content. After 10 min, seeds were introduced in the reactor and treated with pure O2 ([O3] = 0 g/m3) or an O2/O3 ([O3] = 20 g/m3) mixture during 6.8 or 20.5 min. After treatment, seed were removed  form the reactor. An half was directly used for germination test.

The other half was stored 48 hrs at 4-deg C before germination test. These experimental conditions followed a complete factorial design with 3 independent factors (Ozone concentration, treatment duration, rest time before germination) and repeated factor 
(germination test duration). All oxidation treatments were repeated twice.

Conclusion / Results

Treated corn using pure oxygen and oxygen charged with ozone resulted in a faster germination rate vs. control samples. The early germination led to more germinated seeds with larger roots at the 4 and 5 day mark. The presence of ozone in gas treatment improved its effectiveness on corn seed germination and root growth.

Source

El-Purpan, 75 voie du TOEC, 31076 Toulouse Cedex 03, France. ENSIACET, 118 route de Narbonne, 31077 Toulouse Cedex 4, France. Frederic Violleau, Kheira Hadjeba, Joel Albet, Roland Cazalis and Olivier Sure

Source: http://www.ozonesolutions.com/Ozone-Research/Ozone-Treatment-On-Corn-Seed-Germination-Kinetics

Paper Title: Control of Soilborn Diseases in Greenhouse Cultivation of Tomato with Ozone and Trichoderma

Abstract

Ozone is widely used for the elimination of microorganisms from drinking water and swimming pools. Efforts were made in this study of soil treatments to replace methyl bromide, because of its well-known environmental impacts, with ozone or ozone in combination with biological product (Trichomic) based on Trichoderma spp.

Ozone was applied by ozonation of water to the concentration of 4 mg/l before planting and, in some cases, after planting. The biological product was applied alone or in combination with ozone at the dose of 0.5 ml of Trichomic per m2 soil area. The experiment was done in an unheated plastic greenhouse with tomato cultivation. Estimation of treatment effectiveness was based on fruit production and daily growth of plants, as well as on the percentage of plants with corky root, Fusarium foot rot, and/or Fusarium wilt.

Fruit production was increased by 39.7 and 40.4% respectively, when ozone was used alone either before or before and after planting. Increases in fruit production where the biological product Trichomic was used alone or with ozone ranged from 39.2 to 40.5%. The highest plant growth rate was observed where Trichomic was applied after ozone. The lowest percentage of diseased plants was observed following double applications of ozone or ozone followed by Trichomic.

Problem

In attempt to increase plant sizes and plant production chemicals are used to reduce soil borne diseases, weeds and pests. Many of these commonly used biocides, commonly methyl bromide are considered harmful to the environment and ozone layer. The harmful effects of these biocides have led to research into alternatives that are more environmentally friendly. Ozone because of its natural composition is considered a safe alternative and tests have shown that it can effectively improve plant production, typically in the form of mulch or as an additive to irrigation water.

Testing / Method

A test was performed in an unheated greenhouse with the growth of tomato plants. Three comparisons were made: ozone was applied after ozonation of water, biological product was applied with ozone, and biological product was applied by itself. The means for measuring success were fruit production, daily plant growth and percentage of plants that were infected.

Conclusion / Results

These tests showed that the plants with ozone killed plant pathogens, and controlled weeds. Fruit production was increased between 39% and 40% when used alone either before or after planting. Diseased plants decreased when ozone was had a double application along with Trichomic, a biological product. Ozone is an environmentally friendly product that can easily be applied to the soil and replace harmful chemicals.

Source: http://www.ozonesolutions.com/Ozone-Research/Ozone-And-Tomato-Trichoderma-Reduction-In-Greenhouses

P Lefeuvre, DP Martin, M Hoareau, F Naze, H Delatte, M Thierry, A Varsani, N Becker, B Reynaud, JM Lett 

During the last few decades, many virus species have emerged, often forming dynamic complexes within which viruses share common hosts and rampantly exchange genetic material through recombination.

Begomovirus species complexes are common and represent serious agricultural threats. Characterization of species complex diversity has substantially contributed to our understanding of both begomovirus evolution, and the ecological and epidemiological processes involved in the emergence of new viral pathogens.

To date, the only extensively studied emergent African begomovirus species complex is that responsible for cassava mosaic disease.

Here we present a study of another emerging begomovirus species complex which is associated with serious disease outbreaks in bean, tobacco and tomato on the south-west Indian Ocean (SWIO) islands off the coast of Africa. On the basis of 14 new complete DNA-A sequences, we describe seven new island monopartite begomovirus species, suggesting the presence of an extraordinary diversity of begomovirus in the SWIO islands.

Phylogenetic analyses of these sequences reveal a close relationship between monopartite and bipartite African begomoviruses, supporting the hypothesis that either bipartite African begomoviruses have captured B components from other bipartite viruses, or there have been multiple B-component losses amongst SWIO virus progenitors.

Moreover, we present evidence that detectable recombination events amongst African, Mediterranean and SWIO begomoviruses, while substantially contributing to their diversity, have not occurred randomly throughout their genomes.

We provide the first statistical support for three recombination hot-spots (V1/C3 interface, C1 centre and the entire IR) and two recombination cold-spots (the V2 and the third quarter of V1) in the genomes of begomoviruses.

Source: http://www.gradualchange.com/showabstract.php?pmid=18024917

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Volume 3, Issue 3   March 2008 - Pages 166 - 174 - http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/psb.3.3.5538

Authors: Masanori Tamaoki

Abstract: 

Ozone is the main photochemical oxidant that causes leaf damage in many plant species, and can thereby significantly decrease the productivity of crops and forests.

When ozone is incorporated into plants, it produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide.

These ROS induce the synthesis of several plant hormones, such as ethylene, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid. These phytohormones are required for plant growth, development, and defense responses, and regulate the extent of leaf injury in ozone-fumigated plants.

Recently, responses to ozone have been studied using genetically modified plants and mutants with altered hormone levels or signaling pathways. These researches have clarified the roles of phytohormones and the complexity of their signaling pathways.

The present paper reviews the biosynthesis of the phytohormones ethylene, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid, their roles in plant responses to ozone, and multiple interactions between these phytohormones in ozone-exposed plants.

Source: http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/10/article/5538/

http://www.landesbioscience.com/search/?home_search_q=OZONE&landes_home_search_button.x=0&landes_home_search_button.y=0

Authors: Kyoungwon Cho, Ganesh Kumar Agrawal, Nam-Soo Jwa, Junko Shibato, Nilka Lineth Torres and Randeep Rakwal

Abstract: 

The OsSIPK expression is transcriptionally regulated in time and space by diverse environmental stresses and phytohormones.1  Rice OsSIPK and its orthologs in other plants are highly conserved and appear to have overlapping physiological responses.2 

Given our interest in understanding the signaling and metabolic pathways responsible for environmental factors, we briefly discuss the role of OsSIPK in ozone-triggered physiological responses, particularly in rice.  We also provide evidence on tight correlation between ozone-induced OsSIPK expression and ethylene production.

Source: http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/10/article/8394/

PMID: 18066586 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-007-0

http://www.landesbioscience.com/search/?home_search_q=OZONE&landes_home_search_button.x=0&landes_home_search_button.y=0

Ethylene H2C=CH2

Nature of Ethylene

Ethylene, unlike the rest of the plant hormone compounds is a gaseous hormone. Like abscisic acid, it is the only member of its class. Of all the known plant growth substance, ethylene has the simplest structure. It is produced in all higher plants and is usually associated with fruit ripening and the tripple response (Arteca, 1996; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992).

History of Discovery in Plants

Ethylene has been used in practice since the ancient Egyptians, who would gas figs in order to stimulate ripening. The ancient Chinese would burn incense in closed rooms to enhance the ripening of pears. It was in 1864, that leaks of gas from street lights showed stunting of growth, twisting of plants, and abnormal thickening of stems (the triple response)(Arteca, 1996; Salisbury and Ross, 1992).

In 1901, a russian scientist named Dimitry Neljubow showed that the active component was ethylene (Neljubow, 1901). Doubt discovered that ethylene stimulated abscission in 1917 (Doubt, 1917). It wasn't until 1934 that Gane reported that plants synthesize ethylene (Gane, 1934). In 1935, Crocker proposed that ethylene was the plant hormone responsible for fruit ripening as well as inhibition of vegetative tissues (Crocker, 1935). Ethylene is now known to have many other functions as well. 

Biosynthesis and Metabolism

Ethylene is produced in all higher plants and is produced from methionine in essentially all tissues. Production of ethylene varies with the type of tissue, the plant species, and also the stage of development. The mechanism by which ethylene is produced from methionine is a 3 step process (McKeon et al., 1995; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). 

ATP is an essential component in the synthesis of ethylene from methionine. ATP and water are added to methionine resulting in loss of the three phosphates and S-adenosyl methionine. 

1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase (ACC-synthase) facilitates the production of ACC from SAM. 

Oxygen is then needed in order to oxidize ACC and produce ethylene. This reaction is catalyzed by an oxidative enzyme called ethylene forming enzyme. 

The control of ethylene production has received considerable study. Study of ethylene has focused around the synthesis promoting effects of auxin, wounding, and drought as well as aspects of fruit-ripening. ACC synthase is the rate limiting step for ethylene production and it is this enzyme that is manipulated in biotechnology to delay fruit ripening in the "flavor saver" tomatoes (Klee and Lanahan, 1995). 

Functions of Ethylene

Ethylene is known to affect the following plant processes (Davies, 1995; Mauseth, 1991; Raven, 1992; Salisbury and Ross, 1992):

• Stimulates the release of dormancy. 
  
• Stimulates shoot and root growth and differentiation (triple response) 
  
• May have a role in adventitious root formation. 
  
• Stimulates leaf and fruit abscission. 
  
• Stimulates Bromiliad flower induction. 
  
• Induction of femaleness in dioecious flowers. 
  
• Stimulates flower opening. 
  
• Stimulates flower and leaf senescence. 
  
• Stimulates fruit ripening.

Source: http://www.plant-hormones.info/ethylene.htm